Hierarchy of Safety Controls

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The hierarchy of control involves the following steps: Elimination – removes the cause of danger completely. Substitution – controls the hazard by replacing it with a less risky way to achieve the same outcome. Engineering Controls protect workers by removing hazardous conditions or by placing a barrier between the worker and the hazard. Administrative Controls are fairly simple: warning alarms, for example, are just that – alarms that let you know when something isn’t right. The last control is PPE, Personal Protective Equipment, which really is exactly what the name implies: protection you use personally. 

Elimination, the top of the hierarchy, is the complete elimination of a hazard, the most effective way to protect workers. For example, bad housekeeping. The best practice would be to eliminate the hazard by picking up or moving what’s in the walking path to prevent a slip, trip or fall. Establish travel paths or walkways through work areas. The concept of elimination isn’t as simple as it sounds. If elimination fixed every hazard, everyone would be doing it. However, if elimination is on the table and is available to an employer, they should use elimination for taking care of the hazard. If elimination doesn’t work, you move on down to the substitution.  

Substitution identifies a hazardous situation and uses a different product or piece of equipment that is not hazardous. An example would be, instead of sandblasting, use a non-silica containing abrasive material. The downfalls of substitution are the quality and cost, such as replacing lead-based paint with titanium white. The product must not produce unintended consequences, such as airborne dust, due to inhalation and accumulation of particles in the lungs that can lead to occupational lung disease. Basically, if you can substitute a smaller product with a larger product, that has a larger particle, then that should be your aim. 

Engineering controls are designed to get as close to eliminating the hazard as possible, without eliminating it completely. This is done by designing something in the facility or a piece of equipment to reduce the hazard or employee’s exposure to the hazard. The design must be used properly and be certified by ANSI. A glove box for handling hazardous material and chemicals is an example of isolation and engineering control. The box allows the employee to do the work while not being exposed to the material/chemical due to the material being in the box. Engineering controls don’t work out for everyone, they must be used perfectly if used. Engineering controls are the best option when the hazard cannot be eliminated.  

Administrative controls (written policies & procedures) are at the point where you identify the hazard and recognize the hazard as one that can be tolerated or lived with as long as there are boundaries and precautions in place, so levels of exposure are not exceeded. Administrative controls can be used in conjunction with engineering controls or PPE such as planning the day job in the evening time in the summer due to heat stress and dehydration of workers.  

Finally, PPE. Of all of the controls in the Hierarchy of Controls, Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) is the one most people are familiar with.  Why?  Well, PPE is quick, easy, often less expensive than other options, and readily available. You should know that PIOSH and OSHA consider PPE a “last resort.” So, while a personal fall arrest system is considered PPE, a guardrail is not. While a respirator is considered PPE, ventilation is not. PPE includes material that must be worn on a job site such as earplugs, gloves, hard hats, safety glasses, steel toe boots, or reflective vests. PPE is not a game of guesswork. You must know what PPE is sufficient and insufficient such as earplugs rated for noise reduction. There must be a noise survey done to determine what kind of earplugs will reduce the noise to acceptable levels. PPE must be taken care of and used properly. A full-body harness could save your life but also could cause serious internal bodily harm if it’s not worn properly. 

In a nutshell, take your time and observe the areas around you. If you see a hazard, go through the steps of the hierarchy of control to see which level will best suit the hazard to prevent the worker from getting injured. Safety is common sense, and we can learn to manage hazards better by using the hierarchy of controls.  

City of Weatherford: A CMOM Success Story

The Oklahoma Supreme Court has stated that “The maintenance and repair of [city] sewers is a corporate or proprietary function of a city and the city is liable for injuries sustained because of its failure to maintain and repair sewers properly.”  Oklahoma law requires municipalities “to use reasonable diligence and care to see that such sewer is not clogged ... and is liable for negligence in the performance of such duty to a property owner injured thereby after reasonable notice of the clogged condition of its sewer.”[1] 

During 2004, the City of Weatherford had 48 sanitary sewer overflow claims resulting in a Consent Order from the Oklahoma Department of Environmental Quality (DEQ). Included in the Consent Order was the development of a CMOM (Capacity, Management, Operations, and Maintenance) Program to control their sanitary sewer overflows (SSOs).  

The 2005 implementation of Weatherford’s CMOM program included the purchase of a trailer-mounted jetter and a dedicated crew of two full-time employees tasked with sanitary sewer collection system maintenance and record keeping for annual reports to OK-DEQ. Today their program has grown to three full-time employees, two trailer-mounted jetters, two vacuums, and a rover CCTV camera complete with a van. Weatherford has gone from having 48 SSOs in 2004 to averaging less than 2 per year from 2005 through 2018. Liability costs are greatly diminished and quality of life for the residents of Weatherford has improved. 

The City of Weatherford’s sewer maintenance crew cleans over 250,000 feet of sewer line per year and video inspects about 3,400 feet per year. Their CCTV camera (OMAG has a grant for CCTV camera purchase assistance) removes the guesswork in determining what obstructs the line (roots, grease, debris, line collapse, etc.) and where exactly the problem is in the line. Then they can develop a plan to fix the problem and service the line. Weatherford uses root foam on about 7,000 feet of line per year (OMAG has a grant for Dukes Roots purchase assistance). Larry McKillip and his crew recommend using a Warthog jetting nozzle when jetting lines especially if they contain root balls. Larry says the Warthog is much more effective than mechanical cutters and saws, because the saws get stuck and are hard to dislodge, resulting in the need to dig up a line and break the pipe to retrieve the tool.  

Trent Perkins, Public Works Director for Weatherford stated, “maps are critical for productivity.” That is why the city contacted their local COG (Council of Government)- SWODA for assistance in locating and mapping their water and sewer lines.  Through a grant (COG provides grant assistance for REAP and CDBG programs provided by the Oklahoma Department of Commerce,) the city has a viable computerized map showing the locations of all their water and sewer lines as well as manhole locations. OMAG can also assist member municipalities in gaining helpful information about their sewer systems using the SL-Rat (Sewer Line -Rapid Assessment Tool). This tool is loaned to cities and towns to quickly assess and map their sewer lines and determine what areas of town need maintenance, repair, or replacement, so municipal leaders can formulate a plan and budget for said infrastructural improvements. It is our belief the SL-Rat is an excellent tool for municipalities to use if they are seeking a REAP or CDBG grant.  

Since sanitary sewer overflows are the most frequent liability claim filed against municipalities and authorities annually, and the cost of SSO claims continues to increase each year, OMAG recommends our cities and towns investigate utilizing resources to rehabilitate their aging sewer infrastructure. 

A CMOM or any sewer line maintenance program is a costly start-up investment in time, staffing, and money, but it will quickly pay for itself by reducing sanitary sewer back-up claims. Citizens like to see capital improvements like new fire trucks, police cars, parks, and ballfields (the stuff we can see), but it’s also true they don’t like to have raw sewage running into their homes and businesses. Oklahoma leaders have been talking about our aging and disintegrating infrastructures for years. It is time to start making plans for major overhauls of these systems. Don’t wait for a consent order from OK-DEQ - take advantage of the resources available to you and start making the changes now.  

According to Trent Perkins, “Personnel is the most important factor in the success of a sewer maintenance program, that and having the proper equipment, but support from the city’s mayor and council is key to our success.” Mike Brown, Mayor of Weatherford stated, “The City of Weatherford is thankful and proud that OMAG recognizes our efforts utilizing the CMOM program. Trent Perkins and his crew do an outstanding job maintaining our water and sewer lines. We appreciate the partnerships with SWODA and OMAG working with Weatherford to provide the best services available to our citizens.”  

[1] Spencer v. City of Bristow, 2007 OK CIV APP 67, ¶ 12, 165 P.3d 361, 364 

How to Dress for Cold Weather

On days when the air is cold, the wind is blowing, and the humidity is high or it’s raining, your clothing strategy is key to keeping you from getting a cold stress injury. Here are some tips for how to dress when the temperatures drop.

Layering lets you adjust your body’s temperature by putting on and removing items of clothing and maintaining an even comfort level as conditions or your exertion levels change. To dress for cold weather, you need three layers for maximum warmth and protection.

• Base layer: Your long underwear needs to keep your skin as dry as possible.

• Middle layer: Your fleece or puffy jacket needs to preserve as much body heat as possible.

• Outer layer: Your rain gear needs to protect you from rain and wind.

 Choosing your base/underwear layer

Warm skin starts with dry skin, so long underwear’s job is to wick perspiration away from you. Synthetic fabrics like polyesters are great at both wicking and drying. Wool is a good natural fiber option that holds its insulating abilities even when wet. Avoid cotton fabrics, as they do not retain their insulating abilities when they get wet.

Think about the fit. Wicking cannot occur in places where fabric is not touching skin, so you want a comfortably snug (not tight) fit everywhere.

Thickness or weight: Heavyweight makes sense for sub-freezing temps and low activity levels. Midweight is a good all-around choice. Lightweight is left to milder conditions.

Choosing your middle/insulating layer

This is the layer most people think about in cold conditions, so it’s not surprising that this layer’s job is to retain warmth.  Insulating materials like fleece are a good start. Make sure your jacket is a heavyweight fleece. When you are working outdoors in serious cold weather conditions, then a puffy jacket/coat should come into play. Down coats and jackets are a good standard if you are not working in wet conditions. They lose their insulating ability when they get wet. Puffy jackets/coats with synthetic fills are a better option when conditions get damp.

Insulating thickness can be tricky because you can’t rely on thickness to indicate warmth level when insulation types differ. Temperature ratings on labels are not reliable because there are too many variables (wind, rain, activity level, etc.) You can eyeball 2 jackets with identical insulation specs though and conclude that puffier equals warmer.

Full coverage: Don’t just think about jackets/coats - save some love for the legs. Keep some insulated or fleece pants with you, so your lower half can stay as warm as your top half.

Choosing your outer layer (shell coat and pants)

This is our outer line of defense. Even though it’s often referred to as “rainwear”, this layer’s job is to shield the underneath layers from snow, sleet, rain, and wind. There are 3 important attributes to consider when choosing your outer layer.

•  Precipitation protection: A wicking base layer can’t keep your skin dry if moisture is soaking you from the outside. In winter you don’t want to sacrifice any warmth to evaporation cooling. Wear a shell that is “waterproof” rather than merely “water resistant”.

• Breathable protection: Perspiration wicked by your base layer needs a way to escape. Wear a shell that is breathable, or moisture can build up inside it and soak you. You don’t need the most expensive GORE-TEX rainwear – any shell that is designated as “waterproof/breathable” should work fine.

• Windchill protection: The good news is that any shell that is “waterproof” is also “windproof”.

Shell pants- Cold, wet ankles are no fun, so be sure your boot tops are covered. If your pants don’t cover your ankles, then consider wearing a pair of gaiters.

Keeping Your Head, Hands, and Feet Warm

To prevent extremities from getting cold, cover up everywhere. The warmest options in hats, gloves, and footwear do the same thing as layers elsewhere: wick, insulate, and block rain/wind.

Hats- Wool or synthetic beanies work well, and you can rely on your shell jacket/coat’s hood for rain coverage. Full-on winter hats will have insulation inside the shell material. Make sure your headwear covers your ears. If your face is uncomfortably cold, wear a balaclava.

Gloves- Fleece gloves provide basic warmth. Insulated gloves, especially ones with waterproof/breathable shells are better. Mittens are warmer than gloves, because they share finger warmth.

Boots- with thick non-cotton socks can provide warmth when conditions are merely cold, but not wet or snowy. Waterproof boots are the next step up. Winter boots, in addition to offering traction on snow and ice, will also include insulation.

A Warmer Coat- Think of this as a twist on “cold hands, warm heart”. If your heart is warm and toasty, then it has plenty of warm blood to pump out to the hands and feet. Choose a well-insulated waterproof winter coat.

Chemical Warming Packets- Add warmth by slipping hand and foot warmers inside your gloves and socks. They come in a variety of sizes.

Additional Layering Tips for Cold Weather

Don’t wait to adjust layers: Throw on a shell at the first sign of rain or wind and remove your insulating jacket the minute you start to sweat. Staying warm and dry is easier than warming up or drying out.

Cotton is a no-no in any layer: Set aside your love of cotton flannel (or anything cotton) because it soaks up moisture and takes forever to dry out. That is a recipe for hypothermia.

Layers should play well together: Middle and outer layers need to glide on and off. When they fit too tightly over the layers beneath them, adjustments become cumbersome and you risk constricting circulation. Purchase middle and outer layers that are big enough to provide another layer (that of air) between them. This layer of air stays warm and keeps you warmer.

Taking time to make some smart decisions about your winter clothing will keep your warm and toasty and safer this winter.

Airborne Diseases

You can catch some diseases simply by breathing. These are called airborne diseases. Airborne diseases can spread when an infected person coughs, sneezes, laughs, or even talks, spewing nasal and throat secretions into the air in particles of moisture. These particles take flight and land on people or surfaces, contaminating them. When you breathe airborne organisms in, they take up residence inside you. You also can pick up viruses or bacteria when you touch an infected surface and then touch your eyes, nose, or mouth. Because these diseases travel in the air, they are hard to control.

Some of the airborne diseases contracted by millions of people each year are: The Common Cold, Influenza, Chickenpox, Mumps, Measles, Whooping Cough, Tuberculosis, and Diphtheria.

Treatment for Common Airborne Diseases

For most airborne diseases the best treatment is getting plenty of rest and fluids and letting the illness run its course. Some diseases like chickenpox have no targeted treatment, but medications and other supportive care can help relieve symptoms.

Some, such as flu, can be treated with antiviral drugs. Treatment for infants with whooping cough can include antibiotics, but hospitalization is often needed. There are drugs to treat and cure tuberculosis, although some strains of TB are drug resistant. Failure to complete a course of medication can lead to drug resistance and a return of the illness. If caught early enough diphtheria can be successfully treated with antitoxins and antibiotics.

With our world being so easily accessed today with air travel, airborne disease can potentially affect everyone in a brief period of time. Diseases are spread easily in close quarters such as airplanes, schools, malls, and church gatherings. Take precautions: get plenty of rest, exercise, keep your immune system up by using supplemental vitamins, and avoid large populated areas when there is a known outbreak of disease. If you become ill, take some time off from work so you don’t spread the illness.

Municipalities Must Take GHS-HazCom Training Seriously

The final GHS (Global Harmonization System) deadline is now long past. OSHA’s alignment of the HazCom (Hazardous Communication Standard) to GHS has provided a wakeup call to millions of companies across the U.S. to do a better job with their HazCom programs, especially when it comes to training. Unfortunately, not all Oklahoma municipalities have embraced this new standard. HazCom violations remain the number 2 violation on OSHA’s top 10 list of violations.

This article provides four steps employers can take to ensure employees understand the chemical hazards present in their work environments and to comply with GHS updates to HazCom.

• Step One: Build a Training Program Focused on Usefulness

  • While OSHA, and here in Oklahoma, the Department of Labor’s PEOSH division don’t specify how to do training, they do state that training must be effective. Employees must carry their learning into the workplace and be able to put it to use. HazCom has two key components: 1) providing employees with a basic understanding of the HazCom standard (OMAG works with many of our cities and towns to provide this understanding.); and 2) training employees on the specific hazards of the chemicals to which they are exposed and providing protection through administrative controls, engineering controls, and personal protective equipment (These are the responsibility of the employer and its departmental supervisors.)

  • In the past, HazCom with GHS focused on training workers to understand the new SDS (safety data sheets) and labeling formats accompanied with GHS adoption. However, many employers lacked a basic level of understanding about HazCom (municipalities included), making it difficult for them to comprehend and address the changes brought by the new GHS alignment. As a result, workers were never adequately trained on HazCom in the first place or had been trained so long ago that what they learned had been forgotten. It is critical that employers continue to emphasize basic HazCom training, which now includes GHS information to ensure employees are able to use the information in their day-to-day activities.

  • The second component of an effective HazCom training program focuses on the individual hazards employees face. Departmental supervisors must train their employees on the specific chemicals used and their hazards. The key here is to provide employees with a deeper understanding of the dangers and emergency situations they face, and counter them by following written policies and procedures.

• Step Two: Deliver Training So Employees Can Understand It

  • When OSHA first published the HazCom Standard in 1983, it followed the concept of the employee’s “right to know” about the hazards to which they might be exposed. A primary driver for OSHA’s adoption of the GHS has been the desire to improve employee comprehension of critical chemical safety information.

  • With GHS, OSHA is indicating it’s not enough for workers to just know about the hazards; instead they have the “right to understand” those hazards and know what related safety precautions to take.

  • The pre-GHS employee “right to know” concept often translated into giving workers access to MSDSs and labels and making sure they were aware of the hazards that existed from chemicals in their work environment. This approach didn’t always translate to employees understanding the safety and health information being conveyed on the MSDS and labels. GHS adoption helped solve this issue by bringing harmonization and consistency to the structure of the safety data sheets (formerly MSDS, now SDS) and labels. Use of standardized hazard communication elements, such as pictograms, make it possible for workers to more easily understand the hazards associated with chemicals workers use or are around. This simplified approach to communicating hazard information makes it possible to protect workers of all backgrounds. For instance, pictograms make it easier for illiterate and non-English speaking employees to understand the nature of a product’s hazardous properties.

  • The “right to understand” concept compliments OSHA’s rule on employee HazCom training – that it must be presented in a manner all employees can comprehend and retain. When applied to HazCom training, this means that employees who work with or around hazardous chemicals must receive training in a language they can understand, even if the documents (SDSs and labels) are only required in English.

• Step Three: Provide Easy Access to SDSs

  • A key aspect of HazCom training is to make sure employees know how to get direct access to Safety Data Sheets (SDSs) and other hazardous chemical information. Some employers are using electronic solutions to help employees retrieve information from their inventory of SDSs. If this is true with your municipality, it is incumbent on you to make sure employees are made aware of the system, how to access it, and how to use it. Without that access, in the event of an emergency, even an employee that has received adequate training on labels and SDSs will still be at risk should a chemical event occur that requires quick action. For that reason, many employers are taking advantage of technological advancements and using mobile solutions to put SDSs in the hands of their employees. The best Environmental, Health, and Safety (EHS) software solutions today leverage the cloud to make critical chemical safety information available anywhere, any time. One problem with using technology solutions, however, is many municipalities don’t have the financial resources to provide such innovative techniques. Therefore, keeping updated SDSs available to workers in a binder within the work environment of the workers may still be the best way to provide them with quick environmental, safety, and health information when a chemical event occurs. These binders can be kept in trucks, shops, and offices - wherever the employee has access to them.

• Step Four: Keep It Consistent

  • While OSHA and OK DOL-PEOSH don’t require employee training to be performed in specific intervals of time, regular training (at least annually) is a best practice to help ensure your employees better retain HazCom with GHS information. Other instances for training may include newly hired employees, temporary employees, visiting contract workers, or when a new chemical is introduced to a department. This helps ensure that employees who might work with or around a hazardous chemical understand its potential hazards.

It is vitally important to view HazCom and GHS training as an ongoing obligation. Over my years of travel around the state performing inspections and trainings for OMAG shareholders (cities and towns), I have personally noted frequent inadequacies with regard to HazCom and GHS training and information resources. The safety of your employees must be a priority in your day-to-day operations for their sake, for your municipality’s sake, and for the health and welfare of the state of Oklahoma.

Avoiding Back Injuries

Back injuries cause municipalities to spend thousands of dollars each year for medical treatment of workers or for permanent disability. Delivery of public services are also adversely affected by injured or absent workers.  

In order to avoid back injuries and maintain a healthy back, one must understand the components of the back and their functions.  

 The Parts of the Back  

The spine is the primary component of the back. It supports the head and trunk, gives flexibility to the body and protects the spinal cord. Small bones called vertebrae form the spine. The five types of vertebrae have unique forms suited to their locations and functions.  

There are seven cervical vertebrae supporting the skull and neck. They tend to be smaller and more flexible than the other vertebrae. The chest cavity is formed by 24 ribs extending from the twelve thoracic vertebrae. The five lumbar vertebrae are the largest and carry most of the body’s weight.  

Below the lumbar vertebrae is the sacrum, a single bone consisting of five fused vertebrae. At the base of the spine is the coccyx, or tailbone, which is also formed by fused vertebrae.  

In between the vertebrae are shock absorbers called discs. Discs have a strong outer casing with a pliable jelly-like substance inside. The top and bottom of the disc is attached to the vertebrae. Although you often hear of a “slipped disc,” discs cannot slip out of place. 

When a disc is damaged, the jelly-like substance may protrude from between the vertebrae, creating the impression that a disc has moved.  

The spinal cord, with the brain, forms the central nervous system. It is approximately 18 inches long and one-half inch thick. The vertebrae form a canal through which it runs. 31 pairs of nerves branch out from the spinal cord and travel throughout the body. These nerves carry commands to the organs and muscles and relay messages relating to touch, temperature and pain.  

Approximately 400 muscles work together to stabilize the spine, maintain proper posture and allow movement. More than 1,000 tendons connect these muscles to the bones.  

Ligaments are bands of tissue between the bones that maintain the spine’s alignment. They prevent damage due to excessive movement.  

Even minor damage to any one component of the back’s structure can upset the balance and make movement painful. Back pain can occur for no apparent reason and at any point on the spine. However, the most common site for pain is the lower back because it bears more than half of the total body weight.  

Lack of muscle tone and excess weight, especially around the middle, commonly cause and aggravate back pain. Poor posture adds stress, too. When slouching or standing with a swayback, the back’s natural curves are exaggerated. Any imbalance can stress muscles and joints, causing fatigue and injury from overuse. 

Add the daily stresses put on the back, such as carrying heavy objects, leaning over close handwork for long periods or even applying the brakes on the car, and all too often the result is the familiar complaint, “Oh my aching back!”  

 Common Types of Back Injuries  

• Muscle strains and spasms - Aches and pains, once commonly called “lumbago”, usually signal strained muscles, tendons or ligaments or inflamed joints along the backbone.  

If you strain your back, you may feel pain immediately or develop soreness or stiffness later. Muscle spasm may occur after a back injury. Spasm is your back’s response to an injury. It’s designed to immobilize you and prevent further damage.  

• Osteoarthritis - Commonly referred to as arthritis, this disorder affects a majority of people over the age of 60. Overloading, injury and aging can slowly deteriorate cartilage, the protective tissue that covers the surface of vertebral joints. Discs between vertebrae become worn and the spaces between the bones narrow. Bony outgrowths called spurs also develop. Gradually the spine stiffens and loses flexibility.  

As vertebral joints rub together with greater force than normal, the surfaces where they meet, called facets, compress and become irregular. Cartilage becomes worn and the result may be pain.  

• Sciatica - About 10 people in 100 with back pain may experience “sciatica”, named after the sciatic nerve, that extends down each leg from the hip to the heel. Nerve inflammation or compression of nerves in the lower back can cause sciatica. Pain radiates from the back down through the buttock and to the lower leg.  

Tingling, numbness or muscle weakness may also accompany nerve compression. Coughing, sneezing or other activities that exert pressure on the spine can worsen sciatica. Usually, the pain resolves on its own. However, severe nerve compression can cause progressive muscle weakness.  

• Herniated disc - A “slipped disc” is commonly used to describe this condition. While they don’t actually “slip”, normal wear and tear or strain may cause a disc to bulge or rupture.  

When a disc herniates, parts of the disc can protrude from their normal position between the vertebrae. Pain can result when a fragment of the herniated disc places pressure on an adjacent nerve.  

Common Causes of Stress to the Spine  

Gravity is the most troublesome, constant source of strain on the body. It affects the body in a variety of ways in different positions.  

• Standing  

• Gravity forces the low back arch to increase which leads to strain on joints and ligaments.  

• Gravity is worse when reaching overhead or when lifting, pushing or pulling overhead.  

• Stress worsens when muscles fatigue with pro- longed standing.  

• Sitting  

• Unless the spine is well supported, gravity forces it to “flex” or slouch, as in curling knees to chest, squeezes discs in front and stretches ligaments in rear of spine.  

• Worse in soft, low couches or chairs.  

• Worse when leaning forward over work or desk.  

• Bending while standing or sitting  

• Gravity forces the spine to curve forward or flex, compressing spinal discs and stretching ligaments. 

• Made worse when arms are extended forward.  

• Made worse when holding or lifting objects.  

Ways of controlling stress to the spine  

• Rest gives the body a chance to heal and repair itself. Resting the spine can be done in several ways. 

• Temporary rest periods: 1-20 minutes during activity, every one to two hours as activity permits.  

• Contour position; This position involves lying on a firm surface on the back with hips and knees bent to 90 degrees with the lower legs and feet supported on a chair or similar object.  

• Leaning against a wall gives a brief rest while standing or is used as an alternative to sitting. The back should be positioned against a wall with the buttocks and lower back flat against the wall. The buttocks should be tucked under for pelvic tilt. The feet should be placed forward approximately 12 to 24 inches from the wall with the knees relaxed or slightly bent. The feet should be comfortably apart and if desired, hands can be placed behind the hips.  

• Propping up a foot is used to relax the spine while standing. Elevate one foot onto an object 6 to 18 inches high, depending on personal comfort. Frequently alternate the elevated foot with the one on the floor. The pelvis should be tilted with elbow or hand braced on the flexed leg if possible.  

• Sleeping  

• Lying on the back with a small comfortable pillow under the head is a good resting position. Knees should be bent with one or two pillows under the knees.  

• When lying on side, a moderate sized pillow should be used under the head and neck, not under the shoulders. The head and neck should be kept in a straight line with the trunk of the body. Hips and knees should be bent comfortably with the knees drawn slightly toward the chest. A pillow be- tween the knees also relieve lower back strain. 

• Sleeping on the stomach increases strain to the lower back, neck and jaw.  

• Good posture  

• Good posture means keeping the body well- balanced and supported with the natural amount of curve in the lower and upper back and neck. Good posture avoids extreme swayback or bending of the spine for any period of time.  

• Body mechanics  

• During activity, movement and pressure cause the spine to wear out or become tired. Good body mechanics uses the body in ways which cause the least wear and tear on the body, especially the spine.  

• Reaching overhead causes increased swayback. When reaching overhead, one should keep       knees “unlocked” or slightly bent; use a stable broad base of support (legs and feet spread approximately hip or shoulder width apart) and use a stool or ladder for close approach and to prevent “over-reaching”. 

• Reaching in front of or away from body should be minimized if possible. The upper body, elbow or forearm should be braced for additional support. Knees can be braced against a sturdy object for improved support.  

• Pushing or pulling causes many injuries. Pushing is usually preferred over pulling but will depend on the situation. Mechanical assistance such as dollies, forklifts, etc. should be used where available. Objects weighing over 30 pounds should be lifted, pushed or pulled by two people whenever possible.  

• When bending, use a half kneeling or squatting position for low work. Support the upper body by supporting the trunk or leaning on a hand, elbow or outstretched arm. A broad base of support should be used. When bending for extended periods of time, change positions often.  

• Improper lifting or carrying of objects causes a large number of injuries to municipal workers. Important points to remember are to avoid extremes of forward bending or swayback during lifting and to keep objects as close to the body’s center of gravity as possible. The following points should be kept in mind.  

• Plan the lifting movement:  

• Size up the load.  

• Assess the need for another person’s help or mechanical assistance. (When in doubt, ask for help!)  

• Talk over the situation with helpers.  

• Move close to the object. 

• Keep a wide stance with feet spread shoulder width apart and one foot placed slightly forward of the other.  

• Bend with the legs. Get down low for low objects, squat or kneel in a half kneeling position, bring object between knees and avoid lifting objects out over the knees.  

• Keep the back straight with shoulders back, buttocks out and knees bent.  

• Bring the load close to stomach. Get control of the load before standing and brace the object against the thigh.  

• Stand smoothly. Jerky movements may cause sudden strain. Use leg power and keep back straight.  

• Pivot rather than twisting at waist. The lift should be completed before attempting to change direction of movement. Take a step with the lead foot in the direction you wish to move. Turn the whole body as a unit and avoid crossing the feet.  

• When setting objects down, simply reverse the procedures used in lifting. Move close to destination before bending. The load should be braced against the stomach or thigh. 

The principles outlined above may be difficult to apply in all situations, but if applied whenever possible to routine situations they will become good habits to reduce spinal stress.  

It is important for employees to practice these principles with critique and supervision, since body awareness must be developed. Years of using improper lifting techniques cannot be overcome in one easy session. Constant attention must be paid to proper lifting techniques before injury rates can go down.